These excerpts are from various papers published the book The Sikh Art And Architecture, edited by Dr. Darshan Singh, Punjab University.-- Editor

Bhai Gian Singh, who was one of the Master artists was born in 1883. He belonged to the line of Naqqashes started by Bhai Kehar Singh, who enjoyed royal patronage under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Bhai Kehar Singh had two nephews, Bhai Kishan Singh and Bhai Bishan Singh, who turned out to be great artists in Frescoe-painting in their own right in those days. Bhai Bishan Singh had two sons, Bhai Nihal Singh and Bhai Jawahar Singh, who followed in the footsteps of their father. Bhai Gian Singh was the loyal disciple of these two masters. Bhai Gian Singh was an expert in frescoe painting. He served in the Golden Temple, Amritsar, for about 32 years.

In recognition of his meritorious services, he was endowed with the rare grant of a Siropa by the SGPC, in the year 1949. Through years of continous, practical study of the subject, Bhai ji introduced a number of innovations in Frescoe painting.

He was a saintly soul, who believed in quietly, almost un-obtrusively offering his artistic creations at the feet of his Creator - the Supreme artist, and was, in no way, less than selfless devotee (Nishkam Karma Yogi). He was endowed with almost supernatural capabilities, and worked on his delicate subjects without glasses throughout his life. With his demise in 1953, the curtain was finally dropped on the time-hallowed school of Naqqashes, which had been started by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and had presented to the people a vision of the cumulative of the Punjab and the Sikh Art in its varied aspects - human, floral, zoological, etc.

Bhai Gian Singh's works, immortalized on the walls, roofs and corridors of the Golden Temple, Amritsar, will go down to posterity as a chaste legacy - at once a tribute to the sublime ideas of the artist, as also an eloquent testimony to the mysterious depths attained in art.

The late Bhai Gian Singh Naqqash, with his high degree of proficiency in civil engineering - he had worked in the Golden Temple for about one-half quarter of century - has given a very vivid account in respect of the technique of the various phases of masonary, carpentary, smithy works, as practiced in the construction to ensure durability with beauty of form. The total know-how is copiously packed and profusely illustrated by himself, in his famous book Vishkarma Darpan. The very title of the book is inspirational to the seekers after knowledge in the various branches of architecture. Particularly noticeable is the under-current of humility with which Bhai Sahib has surcharged the entire text in a lucid style, to make the important and intricate points easily understandable to the learner as well as the proficient.

Fresco on the soffit of the arches (left) and the original stone gateway (right) of the Akal Bunga. Nishaan

Such works on architecture are indeed an invaluable legacy. The book is a rare antique on a technical and comprehensive subject, published as far back as over 60 years ago.

Due to his long association with the Golden Temple, Bhai ji had developed a philosophical approach towards life, and was well-versed in the recitation and interpretation of the verses from the Holy Guru Granth Sahib. A number of books on aesthetic and religious subjects were published by him. Some of his outstanding works on art are:

i. Nakashi Art Shiksha

ii. Nakashi Darpan

iii. Taj-i-Zargari (deals with designing of gold and silver ornaments)

iv. Kasheeda Art Book (deals with the designing of beautiful Naqshas on shawls and other fabrics)

These books were brought out by him after continous urging by experienced craftsmen, and served as inspiring encyclopaedias in their respective spheres. These books also are now rare and invaluable antiques deserving thorough research work at really competent hands. A true humanist, Bhai Sahib loved all and hated none. Non-violence was the bedrock of his beliefs. His name will reverberate through the corridors of time as of a gifted soul inspired by the lofty ideals of True, the Good and the Beautiful. I am lucky to be his son and humbly following the celebrated footsteps of my late father in the field of Art endeavour.

As pointed out above, the Sikh Chieftains under the overlordship of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, were normally engaged in rebutting the inroads of invaders, and naturally they were left with very little leisure to enjoy the niceties of fine art in the normal course. But due to the fabulous power and wealth newly acquired by them, they undoubtedly wanted to live in style and surround themselves in magnificence.

The craftsmen commissioned by them for the purpose were given a full hand to express their ideas in line and colours. The artisans also left no stone unturned to do full justice to the confidence reposed in them, and adopted various methods to adorn and enrich the atmosphere of the shrines, fortresses, havellis and other residential structures of the time. The following is a brief account of the various techniques adopted by them for this purpose:

The Technique Of Frescoe Painting (Mohra Qashi)

The technique of frescoe-painting, through the various stages of its execution, caters for the the everlasting durability of the finest details that secures them against the revages of time. It requires prompt attention to minute details, and is born out of the concentrated efforts, both physical and mental, on the part of the artist.

The sequence to be painted is originally drawn in pencil or charcoal on a sheet of reasonably thick paper. The entire drawing is then perforated: care being taken to see that perforation is even and perfect. The perforated drawing is called khaka.

To start off, one square foot of the brickwork on the even wall is made, and kept wet to requirement by continuous sprinkling of water. Thereafter the area is plastered with lime (this plaster is called pora). On this plaster is cast a layer of doga, the curd-like residue of white plaster prepared from burnt and drenched marble duly cloth filtered. Before casting doga, the pora is plasterd with the rough remains, called kotta, of white marble plaster, from the cloth filtered material. This makes the lime plaster stronger as well as whiter than its original condition. When the doga is yet wet, the drawing is cast on the area by means of charcoal dust sprinkled, from cloth-knots (called potli), on and through perforated drawing contecting the plaster and thereafter (the ground being still wet) colors are distributed in the different planes of the drawing transferred on the plaster. The colors are then set into the plaster by means of a small wooden showel (called nehla) with a slight hunch in the middle. This showel is kept constantly thumping gently on the wet plaster manually. This process requires unabated attention, and artists are known to have generally gone without meals to ensure the setting in of colors before the plaster dried up.

Once these original colors are thus established, further color coatings are done for bringing out details, giving tones to the required planes and for imparting the final touches to the painting. This entire operation requires that the area is definitely wet throughout as a prerequisite. The colors used in frescoe-paintings are not the ones now popularly known as water-colors, or tubed oil-colors. The frescoe colors are specially prepared for this particular kind of job, as described below:

Frescoe on a Gurdwara wall. Tribune

Red - This is prepared from an indigenous clay called hurmachi. It comes down generally from hill areas, and is available with grocers. It is pulverised by constant rubbing with water on stone slabs. The intensity of redness always depends upon the fineness of the pulverised clay.

Black - This is prepared from burnt coconut crust in the same way as described above.

Green - The source of this color is a sort of green stone, called sang-i-sabz. Small chips of this stone are pulverised with water.

Yellow - This color is obtained from yellow clay, and is of an exceptionally charming hue, requiring plenty of strain in the making.

Blue - This is a mixture of ultramarine with process glue.

White - Burnt marble chips are drenched in water (like lime stone). The mixture is then filtered. The curd-like substance thus settled is put to use. This is also called doga.

All other colors, except green are toned up or otherwise by mixing with white. Green is treated with yellow clay. Colors required for frescoe-paintings are always kept wet with water in earthern receptacles. Dried up colors are of no use. Similarly, the brushes are prepared by the artists themselves from squirrel tail or goat and camel hair for use in frescoe-painting.

Other Allied Arts

i. Gach Work

Gach is a sort of stone (gypsum). This is pounded and fried in a pan. During the course of frying, the standard of its heat-treatment is tested by mixing small qualtities of water. When the desired results are achieved, the material is put to use. It is further prepared, by mixing in water, only in such limited quantities as the artist can at a given time make use of (because immediately on drying up, in a minute or two, it becomes stone again, making it unfit for use). This gach is first applied as lime, then it is shaved with steel cutters and other implements and fashioned out in floral designs, while still in semi-wet stage. After the entire design is dry, it is covered with yellow color mixed with varnish and then pasted over with gold leaves (Varaqs). This sort of work can be seen in plenty in the first story of the Golden Temple, Amritsar, over the Har-ki-Pauri. Verses from the Guru Granth Sahib have been rendered in this style by Bhai Gian Singh.

ii. Tukri Work

Tukri work involves the setting in of the pieces (tukries) of glass of sizes in the Gach work. This style was very popular with the Mughal aristocracy. It received sufficient patronage from the Sikh Chiefs also. Gach work is cut out into various designs, and is then inlaid with colored glass, mirror-glass, gold leaves, etc. Normal glass is generally based on color frosted copper.

Original thin glass pots are polished on the inside with mercury, (this glass is called Pachhika - Sheesha). These are then broken and the pieces cut to sizes with the help of the sharp edge of a special stone, called Krund, to suit the floral and other details cut out from Gach work. At places precious stones are set in the cuts. Buildings containing such works are generally called Sheesh Mahal or glass houses.

Jaratkari Work

Jaratkari work involves the inlaying of colored stone in marble. This art is also a legacy of the Naqqashes. The artist prepares the drawing, and transfers the drawing from the paper on to the slab. The drawing is then made pacca by the Naqqash. The marble stone-dresser (pathar) Ghara engraves the required depths in the marble slab. The original drawing, complete with color scheme, is given by the Naqqash, to the colored stone-dresser (called Begaria) for cutting patterns from multi-colored stones. These patterns are then set in the slab by the pathar Ghara. The following stones are generally used in Jaratkari:

. Haqfque - Red and Pink shade

. Zehir Mohra - Green

. Khattu Pathar - Yellow

. Sabaz Pathar (Nargis) - Green

. Sabaz Pathar (Ghaar) - Dark Green

. Sang Yashap - Green, Light Green, White and Blue

. Sang Pasham - Light Green

. Lajward - Ultramarine

. Black Marble

. Arabic Smak - Light Black, and other various kinds of stones

Special stones in natural colors, to suit the subject - with the necessary fibres and other textures - are cut out by hand with considerable effort and with the help of special implements, to fit in the carvings in marble slabs. Colored stone of considerable size has to be cut and re-cut for fashioning out the required pattern. The various arts and modes of architecture as detailed above are a very valuable legacy passed on to us by our forefathers and it is high time that due patronage for their revival, survival and continuance is given by the State as well as by society.

The art of wall painting had been commonly practised in the 18th century Punjab¹ as a tradition in the decoration of shrines and houses. It flourished under the Sikhs, struggled for existence in the violent social changes that came in the train of the British and succumbed to the great transformation that was brought about in Punjab by the turn of the century.

Although the Sikh 'unitarian form of belief and the ban against image-worship left very little scope for the development of the visual arts for needs of religious worship',² yet the primitivist need of the folk for images flouted the taboos of faith, and brought about many paintings.³ They spent large sums of money for the beautification of their Gurdwaras.

In Maharaja Ranjit Singh's time, Sikhism had royal patronage, the Sikhs began to devote themselves to the magnificence and splendour. The walls of over 700 shrines associated with the Sikh Gurus in the Punjab were available for embellishment. The endowments and grants worth thousands of rupees⁴ made possible the building of these shrines in pucca masonry.

Representation of the Sikh Gurus constitute the major portion of themes pertaining to the Sikhs and more than half of the murals portray Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, the first and the last of the Sikh Gurus.

From among the extant remains of wall paintings in Punjab, the earliest rendering of Guru Nanak is from the late 18th century mural panel in the temple of Sri Nam Dev at Ghoman in district Gurdaspur. By the end of the first quarter of the 19th century, representations of the first master became much more popular, being based on traditional accounts.

i. Guru Nanak sitting with Bala, a chauri-bearer and Mardana, the rebeck player. Under a tree, on which birds - mostly parrots - are shown, he sits in characteristic meditative pose, not very different from how he is seen in many modern calendar paintings. His back supported by a round pillow, a rosary in his right hand, the left arm resting on the mat on the floor. A typical example of this type of representation is seen in the Bairagi temple at Ram Tatwali, in district Hoshiarpur.

ii. Another important theme is the siddha goshti, Guru Nanak's religious discourse with the siddhas backed by a number of siddhas ascetics sitting in their hierarchical order. The themes has been best delineated in akhara Bala Nanad, Amritsar, and in the samadh of Baba Khuda Singh at Naurangabad near Tarn Taran. Many a times the Guru appears along with his sons, Sri Chand and Lakshmi Das, sitting respectfully before him.

iii. The most representative extant series of the Janamsakhis are to be seen in the Gurdwara of Baba Kala Dhari at Una, and in the shrine of Baba Atal, in Amritsar, the former consisting of forty one painted panels. Beginning with the birth of Guru Nanak, the first part of the series illustrates themes from the Guru's childhood consisting of scenes of the Guru attending school, disagreeing with his teacher's lessons on worldly knowledge, grazing his father's buffalos and cows, feeding the poor and the holy, etc.

As he grows up, he is seen as the keeper of the government stores at Sultanpur; getting bethroed and married; and renouncing the world. Then he appears as a preacher meeting Malik Bhago and demonstrating the difference between earnings of the oppressor and those of the honest man. Further he is seen with Kauda (the cannibal), with Kaliyuga and Wali Kandhari, all of whom are made by him to relinquish their evil propensities. He is also depicted preaching to the legendary character called Karun, and sleeping, while at Mecca, with the feet pointing towards the Ka'aba.

The series in Baba Atal ends with the Guru's appointing Angad as his successor to Guru Gaddi. The series in the Gurdwara of Baba Kala Dhari at Una also consists of a number of scenes illustrating Guru Nanak's religious discourses with contemporary theologists. The old building of Gurdwara Panja Sahib at Hasan Abdal, now in Pakistan, too, once had murals relating to the Guru's life.⁵

Guru Gobind Singh often appears on a horseback holding a falcon and accompanied by a hound and a few attendants. The best extant wall painting on this theme, which is repeated over and over again, is to be seen in the samadh of Baba Dyal Das at Barnala and in the Golden Temple at Amritsar. Guru Gobind Singh baptizing the 'Five Beloved Ones' is another popular theme and one of its representative examples still survives amongst the wall paintings of Akal Takhat. Paintings depicting him in a sitting posture with an attendant behind are also seen painted but not that often. In one of the wall paintings at Gurdwara Gurusar in Bargarhi, districk Faridkot, he is portrayed playing dice with Rai Jagga, the chief of Kot Kapura. A mural in the samadh of Baba Mohar Singh at Tanda in district Hoshiarpur represents Guru Gobind Singh along with his four sons.

Murals depicting other Sikh Gurus show the Guru sitting with an attendant behind, waving a yak's tail fly-whisk or peacock-feather fan. Apart from the well executed wall paintings of the Gurus, extant in the Gurdwara of Baba Kala Dhari at Una, the Gurdwara of Baba Bir Singh at Nurangabad, they are also to be seen in Raja Sansi in district Amritsar, the Akal Takhat at Amritsar, Darbar Sahib and Bunga of village Sathiala in Tarn Taran, Gurdwara Pothi Mala at Guru Harsahai in district Ferozpur. Scenes from the lives of the Gurus were also painted on the walls of a dharamsala of Lehru,⁶ a village in district Ludhiana.

Wall paintings illustrating interesting themes related to Guru Hargobind appear on one of the panels in the samadh of Mangani Ram at Amritsar, portraying his religious discourse with Mian Mir. In the Akal Takhat, Bhai Bidhi Chand is shown presenting those horses to the Guru, which he skillfully brought back from the Governor of Lahore who had forcibly made off with them earlier. A panel in Gurdwara Pothi Mala depicts Guru Hargobind blessing Mai Sulakhni.

Wall paintings representing Guru Nanak flanked by the rest of the Gurus were painted several times, but the theme portraying all the Gurus in a single panel seems to have come into vogue not earlier than the second half of the 19th century. Typical examples are to be seen in the samadh of mahant Mangni Ram and akhara Bala Nand, both in Amritsar, in the shivala of Hardhan at Matewal, a village near Amritsar and in the samadh of Baba Mohar Singh at Tanda, in district Hoshiarpur. Among the paintings that embellished the walls of a palace at Wazirabad built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, were life size portraits of the Gurus, from Nanak to Gobind, according to Baron Hugel⁷ who saw them there personally.

After the Gurus, came, in terms of popularity, themes that depict Sikh martyrs who became victims of mughal bigotry. The most prominent among them are Ajit Singh, Jojhar Singh, Fateh Singh and Zorawar Singh, the four sons of Guru Gobind Singh. They have usually been illustrated in action in the battlefield, and are best represented in a panel at Gurdwara Pothi Mal at Guru Harshai in district Ferozpur. A number of other martyrs - Deep Singh, Nena Singh, Gurbaksh Singh, Kharag Singh - adorn the walls of the shrine of Baba Atal. Banda Bahadur, one of the most valiant leaders and martyrs of the Sikhs, after Guru Gobind Singh, has been depicted only once in the Darbar Sahib at Tarn Taran.

The theme portraying Baba Budha ji are confined to the wall paintings seen in the edifices in the Majha tract. The whole of this lineage consisting of Bhai Sarwan, Jhanda, Gurdita, Mohar Singh, Shyam Singh, Kahn Singh and Sujan Singh also appear even if rarely. Two such series of wall paintings are extant in the Akal Takhat and Baba Atal. Similarly, in Gurdwara Pothi Mala at Guru Harshai, in district Ferozpur, is a series representing the lineage of Sodhis. Many other personages related to the Sikh religion also appear in murals, including of Bab Bir Singh at Naurangabad, near Tarn Taran, Bhai Mani Singh in the bunga of village Sathiala at Tarn Taran and Akali Phula Singh in the temple of the Bairagis at Ram Tatwali in district Hoshiarpur.

Nihan Singhs form one of the most interesting themes in the murals of the 19th century Punjab. Their way of life is elaborately represented in the paintings. They appear as dvarapalas or guards with drawn swords, beating drums, riding horses and elephants, hunting, fencing, grinding leaves to make intoxicating potion, and the like. Many wall paintings relating to them are extant in the Gurdwara at Bargarhi near Kot Kapura, in the samadh of Rani Jind at Hoshiarpur and in the samadh of Baba Mohar Singh at Tanda. In the Gurdwara Logarh at Dina, in district Faridkot, are to be seen two most prominent leaders of the Nihangs - Akali Phula Singh mounted on an elephant and Nena Singh riding a horse, their names being indicated in Gurmukhi characters above their heads.

Two paintings, one each in the samadh of Baba Khuda Singh at Naurangabad, district Amritsar, and the samadh of the daughter of Mai Hiran at Bhunga in district Hoshiarpur, depict Sikh sangat paying reverence to the Holy Guru Granth Sahib.

Sikh themes are also to be seen in the considerable number of paintings connected, one way or the other, with the 19th century royalty and nobility. In two paintings, one in the samadh of Baba Man Singh at Sodhiwala near Zira and the other in the thakurdwara at Bagarian in district Sangrur, appears Maharaja Ranjit Singh followed by his royal retinue.

The demolished Bungas of the Golden Temple at Amritsar once had splendid wall paintings depicting important events of Sikh history.

In the Lahore palace, a mural is recorded as showing the meeting of Maharaja Ranjit Singh with Lord William Bentinck at Ropar. ⁸ A mural in the house of Generals Ventura and Allard at Lahore records their reception in the court.[9] There are also pictures of battles in which the two generals were engaged.[10] The tradition of getting walls painted with themes illustrating battles was apparently popular among the Sikhs. Houses of the Sikh nobility in district Lahore were embellished with fighting scenes relating chiefly to conflicts with the Afghans of the north-west frontier.¹¹ A wall painting representing the battle of Jamrood is mentioned as among those in the fort of Hari Singh Nalwa at Gujranwala.¹²

The ceiling of Allard's bungalow at Lahore was painted with the emblem of Francese Compo or the Fauj-i-Khas consisting of the Galic eagle and the tri-coloured flag writ large with the name of Guru Gobind Singh.¹³ In a mural in akhara Bala Nand at Amritsar appears Hari Singh Nalwa inspecting a long row of soldiers. Two adjacent panels in akhara Beri Wala at Amritsar represents Ranjit Singh and the Jangi-lat on horsebacks, facing each other and followed by the Sikh and the British armies respectively. The Sikh and the British armies engaged in fierce battles consisting of many hundred soldiers appear in a wall painting in the temple of Bairagis at Ram Tatwali in district Hoshiarpur.

A considerable number of portraits, some based on life and others on imagination, mostly depicting 19th century Sikh royalty and aristocracy, are to be seen among the extant wall paintings all over the Punjab. In addition, there are references to portraits in written records which describe works no longer surviving.

Among the portraits, Maharaja Ranjit Singh's remains the dominating figure. In one of the frescoes in the Royal Palace in Lahore, Ranjit Singh was portrayed in the presence of Baba Nanak with his hands joined in supplicatory manner.¹⁴ In the scene that represented Ranjit's meeting with the Governor-General of Ropar, in one of the murals of the Lahore palace, the two potentates were portrayed¹⁵ facing each other.

The frescoes in the mansion of Avitabile had, among other themes, a portrait of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.¹⁶ A painting in Peshawar portrayed Maharaja Ranjit Singh seated cross-legged with Raja Dhian Singh on his right hand, while the effiminate and youthful Hira Singh lolled in a careless attitude besides his master.¹⁷ The description also mentions a crew of whiskered, turbaned figures, portraying Allard, Ventura, Court and Avitabile, the four prominent European officers in the employee of the Maharaja, standing behind the arbiter of their destinies. Not very long ago, wall paintings representing life-size portraits of Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the princes were to be seen on the walls of the Ramgarhia bunga, especially the pillars facing the Dukh Bhanjani shrine in the premises of the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

At Ram Tatwali, in district Hoshiarpur, a remarkable painting portrays the Maharaja seated in a chair while Dhian Singh, Gulab Singh and Suchet Singh, the Dogra brothers, stand with folded hands before their master. A painting with a similar composition survives in the samadh of Baba Mohar Singh at Tanda. In another painting in akhara Bala Nand at Amritsar, he is portrayed with his sons: Kharak Singh, Sher Singh and Nau Nihal Singh. Other interesting murals delineating the Maharaja in different situations are to be seen at Sri Palkian Sahib near Jaura, a village in district Amritsar, in the haveli of Seth Panna Lal Phul Chand Sharda at Ferozpur, in the house of Shri Anant Ram at Tanda, in the Shiv temple at Bhunga in district Hoshiarpur and in the temple of Baba Hari Har at Nur Mahal.

Individual portraits of Sher Singh, Dhian Singh, Gulab Singh, Suchet Singh and Fakir Azizuddin appear in the Bairagi temple at Ram Tatwali. In the Shiv temple at Lasara, a village in district Jalandhar, are two interesting portraits, identified through Persian inscriptions over their heads. One of these depicts Maharaja Sher Singh with an attendant, Gulam Mohiudin, while the other depicts, interestingly enough, Maharaja Dalip Singh playing sitar.

The mural in the house of Ventura and Allard which represented their reception at the Court of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and which we are told consisted of 'many thousand figures'¹⁸ must have included many portrait studies, at least of those who were directly involved. A painting in the house of Shri Kundan Lal at Dasuya portrays General Court and his wife standing with umbrellas held over their heads. The name 'Court Sahib Bahadur' appears in Persian script close to the top of the panel.

In the cis-Sutlej states, Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his sardars are replaced as themes by the portraits of local Rajas and chiefs. Wall paintings in the diwankhana in Kila Mubarak at Patiala have life-like portraits of Raja Narindra Singh and the other Rajas of the Phulkian states, including Sangat Singh, the Raja of Jind. In the Kila Mubarak at Chhachhrauli appear wall paintings portraying local sardars.

Not infrequently the person in whose honor an edifice was erected was portrayed in a mural panel. A portrait of Baba Bikram Singh Bedi can be seen in his samadh at Amritsar. Portraits of Baba Bir Singh appear in the Gurdwaras related to him both at Raja Sansi as well as at Naurangabad, in Amritsar district. There is a fine portrait believed to have been of Mohar Singh and one of his associates in his samadh at Lopon, a village in district Ludhiana. Portraits of Sardar Lal Singh, Bakshi Mehtab Singh, Baba Khuda Singh, and Baba Mohar Singh are extant in their respective samadhs located at Kale Ghanupur near Amritsar, at Dina in district Faridkot, at Naurangabad near Tarn Taran and at Tanda in district Hoshiarpur, respectively. An interesting frescoe in he temple of Mansa Devi at Manimajra, near Chandigarh, portrays Raja Gopal Singh, the builder of the shrine.¹⁹

Female portraiture was not unknown but was certainly rare. Lt. Barr mentions²⁰ Lady William Bentinck, accoutred in white trousers, boots and gold straps, a few paces behind her husband in the scene that represented Maharaja Ranjit Singh's meeting with the Governor General at Ropar in one of the murals of the Lahore Palace. At Raja Sansi, a portrait, said to have been of Rani Jindan, who was so well known to Sikh miniaturists, is still extant. Another female portrait in the frescoes of the Bhandari Bola temple at Batala is also believed to be of Rani Jindan. She appears again in one of the portraits in Bairagi temple at Ram Tatwali in district Hoshiarpur.

Edifices related to the Sikhs were often painted with decorative motif known as dehin, executed symmetrically in creeper, floral and bird motifs. It was raised over a base known as gharvanj, a decorative device involving knotted grappling between animals balanced by a similar style of floral patterns. A decorative design known as pattha was used around the dehin.

REFERENCES & NOTES

¹ W.G. Archer, Paintings Of The Sikhs, London, 1966, p.18

² O.C. Gangoli, The Sikh School Of Painting, Indian Art Souveneir, nd., p.6

³ Punjab District Gazetteers, Amritsar District, 1892-93, pp.113

⁴ J.D. Cunningham, A History Of The Sikhs, Delhi, 1966, p.385

⁵ Kham Mohammad Waliullah Khan, Sikh Shrines In West Pakistan, Karachi, 1962, p.17

⁶ R.E. Perry, The Sikhs Of The Punjab, London, 1921, p.51

⁷ Travels In Kashmir And The Punjab, London, 1845, p.250

⁸ Lt. William Barr, Journal of a March from Delhi to Peshawar and from there to Cabul including travels in the Punjab, London, 1844, p.100

⁹ Baron Charles Hugel, op.cit., p.284

¹⁰ Lt. William Barr, op.cit., p.78

¹¹ Punjab District Gazetteers, Lahore District, 1916, p.29

¹² Lt. William Barr, op.cit., pp.130-133

¹³ J.J. Cotton, General Avitabile, Calcutta Review, CCXLVI, Oct.1906, pp.575-76

¹⁴ Lt. William Barr, op.cit., p.101

¹⁵ Ibid., p.100

¹⁶ J.J. Cotton, loc. cit., p.576

¹⁷ Ibid., pp. 544-46

¹⁸ Baron Charles Hugel, op.cit., p.284

¹⁹ Kanwarjit Singh kang, Wall Paintings Of Punjab And Haryana, Delhi, 1985, p.82

²⁰ Kanwarjit Singh Kang, Mural Paintings In The Nineteenth century Punjab, (Doctrol Dissertation), Punjab University Library, 1978, p.100

²¹ Ibid., 137

²² Joseph Wolff, "Travels And Adventures of Rev. Joseph Wolff", London, 1860, Vol. II, p.61

²³ J.J. Cotton, op.cit., p.570

Punjab except for brief but scattered interval till during the reign of Ranjit Singh in the early half of the 19th century, lasting for nearly forty years saw nothing but a close knit chain of foreign invasions which brought in their wake plunder and pillage, unrest, instability, death and destruction.

Since the brief span of 500 years old Sikh history, begining with Babar's invasion, this land has known no leisure or peace, to direct its energy into creative channels. From field to the fight and from the fight to the field sums up the history of the Sikh people. Therefore it has fallen to be understood by a few and to be misunderstood by many, like the general in one of Emile Rola's novels who, when asked what he thought of books, curtly replied, 'Book'. This remark underlines Sikh general attitude towards all arts. For a Sikh's life pattern through centuries has made him more a man of action than of philosophy. Sikhs had to bear the brunt of successive invasions which caused destruction of everything artistic belonging to the Punjab. This practice continued right upto Aurangzeb's time.

The dawn of the 18th century, however, saw the revival of the art of paintings in the Punjab and soon it assumed a distinctive character resulting in Pahari paintings in the western Himalayas, under the patronage of the hill chiefs. But it also suffered eclipse in the later half of the 18th century with the invasion of Kangra by the Gurkhas and later by the occupation of some of the hill states by Sikhs under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. It was under Ranjit Singh's mighty and magnificent reign that comparative peace prevailed in the Punjab for about four decades. With peace and normalcy in public life came wealth, prosperity and the arts received the patronage of the beneficient monarch.

The Pahari painters were commissioned by the Sikh aristocracy to execute two categories of paintings: one murals and the other portraits.

IAbout the murals first, the Pahari painters were asked to execute murals on the walls of the newly rising edifices with the active assistance of the local painters. The local gentry, landlords and mahants followed suit and commissioned Pahari painters to enliven the walls of their mansions, havelis and akharas.

These murals, which were executed in the first half of the 19th century largely reflect the style and spirit of the Kangra paintings in vigour, colour, expression of sentiments, as if it was an endeavour to survive the final grasp of romantic odour and sentiment. The change of patrons and the change of surroundings brought about a thematic change also. In the subject matter, patronized by the hill chiefs, whether it was mythology or Krishna legends, it was the erotic element which was dominant. But in the Sikh view of life this element does not find favour and, in fact, is frowned upon. That is why the Pahari painters working in the Sikh court were not in their element and their later works lack that spontanaity which characterises their earlier works in the akharas and the temples of worship.

The colors mainly used are ultramarine, Indian red and different shades of green. Inside the rectangular frames the figures are drawn with lines moving with splendid grace the outer borders of the ceilings, balconies and entrances to the buildings are decorated with floral patterns of extreme beauty and grace. These floral designs can be seen in Sheesh Mahal Patiala and the Golden Temple. The Golden Temple, particularly, is a treasure house of mural paintings, in lay work, gold work, which not only speak of the superb quality of workmanship but also have a charm of its own. One such painting is an equestrian figure of Guru Gobind Singh with attendants on the wall of the stair of the third story.

Among a host of Sikh painters of that period are Mehtab Singh, Suchet Singh, Sardul Singh and mahant Isher Singh. Among these painters Mehtab Singh and Suchet Singh were talented. The former was adept in wall paintings and decorated the walls of Baba Atal. The tradition of the murals, though slowly dying, had been maintained by Gian Singh Naqqash and Bhai Harnam Singh.

Sikhism with its strong aversion to caste system eradicated all distinctions between high and low, binding them into a well knit military confedracy. The Sikh tenets with stress on submission before the Guru's word, raised general culture of the lower strata of society.

The unitarian form of belief and ban on idol worship left very little scope for the development of the visual arts to serve the need of religious worship. While there was scope for development of architecture to enshrine the Holy Granth and the demands of marshal life required the construction of forts, there was no scope for the practice of pictorial arts in Sikh culture. Yet, it is surprising to find a plethora of portraits in the Sikh School of paintings.

The self sacrificing deeds of the great Gurus enshrined in the heart of every Sikh called for worship through the portraits and thus this sentiment of hero worship built a gallery of portraits of Sikh Gurus and so we have a magnificent series of portraits of Sikh Gurus in Kangra style, a few of which I saw in possession of Mr. A. S. Eagan, an engineer in Manchester, when during my visit to UK I called upon him.

Another factor which popularised portrait painting is that the Sikh is essentially a warrior and is proud of his exploits in the field of battle. Because of this he wanted to be identified and have his memory perpetuated. Some of the Sikh Sardars who saw the hill chiefs of Kangra and Chamba in a brilliant gallery of portraits were much impressed. These artists prepared Sikh Sardars' portraits. Thus portrait painting became popular.

With the advent of the British, some beautiful portraits and compositions were also painted in a new style. The name of Kapur Singh is worth mentioning in this context, since he worked with considerable success in Indo-European style. The tradition of paintings and portraits has been kept alive by artists like Sobha Singh, Kirpal Singh, G.S. Thakar Singh and G.S. Sohan Singh.